Forest Management of Loblolly Pine in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.

BULLETIN OF THE US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester.

January 23, 1914.

FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE IN DELAWARE, MARYLAND, AND VIRGINIA.

By W. D. STERRETT, Forest Examiner.

LOBLOLLY PINE ADAPTED TO FOREST MANAGEGEMENT

Forestry or forest management differs from ordinary lumbering in that when a mature stand of timber is cut provision is always made to secure a new crop of young seedlings -- either by a natural seeding or by sowing or planting -- to take the place of the trees removed. It consists primarily in the growing of successive crops of timber on the same area. It includes also the care of immature stands, comprising chiefly improvement thinnings and protection from fire.

Loblolly pine is easily the leading tree for forest management in those portions of Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia where it grows naturally. The factors which combine to make it particularly suitable for commercial timber growing are: The ease with which it reproduces itself and forms pure, well-stocked stands; its rapid growth and the wide range of sites on which it will grow; the many uses to which its wood is adapted; the comparative cheapness of logging and milling the timber, and the good prices which its lumber commands. This bulletin aims to show the financial possibilities in growing loblolly pine in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia and to describe the best methods of management. As a basis for the latter the silvicultural characteristics of the species are first discussed.

DISTRIBUTION AND IMPORTANCE.

The accompanying map (fig. 1) shows the botanical and commercial distribution of loblolly pine in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. The region to which this report applies is that covered by the botanical range of the species. In this region loblolly pine occurs naturally in some 60 counties, comprising an area of 21,100 square miles (13,500,000 acres). Table 1 * gives the total cut of lumber of

1. Given in detail by counties in Table 22, Appendix B.

all species and that of yellow pine in these counties in 1909, and an estimate of the proportion which loblolly formed of the yellow pine output.

Table 1. - cut of lumber in 60 counties of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia in 1909.

As seen from the table, yellow pine forms the bulk of the lumber output, and is in turn composed chiefly of loblolly.

FOREST TYPES

Loblolly pine occurs, even in the same locality, in a number of forest types arising from differences in physiography and soil. Five-sixths of the region, including all of the Maryland and Delaware portions and the larger part of the area in Virginia, lies in the comparatively flat coastal plains or "tidewater" region, with an average elevation of about 100 feet above sea, and containing much wet, poorly drained land. The remaining one-sixth is in the eastern part of the well-drained rolling hill country or Piedmont section of middle Virginia, with an elevation varying from 100 to 500 feet. The soils in the Coastal Plain section are generally light, while those in the Piedmont are heavy.

COASTAL PLAIN TYPES.

In the tidewater section loblolly pine grows:

(1) In pure stands: (a) on old fields, where most of the pure stands of any extent are found; (b) on moist soils along the edges of swamps, streams, and ponds, usually in comparatively small groups.

(2) In mixture with other species in swamps or semiswamps; (a) with cypress, gum, and maple on very wet land subject to over-flow; (b) with maple, gum, several species of oak, and yellow poplar on moist to wet land not subject to inundation.

(3) On well-drained or upland soils in mixture with oaks, hickory, cedar, and gum, and shortleaf, scrub, and pitch pines.

In the Virginia tidewater section, covering some 11,000 square miles (7,000,000 acres), loblolly is the only species of pine occurring to any extent in commercial quantities, and is the important timber tree. In the northern half of the Maryland-Delaware Coastal Plain section loblollv is comparatively scarce, growing in mixture with hardwooods some scrub and pitch pine, and is not important commercially. In the southern half of this region, however, where the general elevation is less than 50 feet above sea, loblolly is the most important timber tree.

In middle or Piedmont Virginia, in the portion contiguous to the western edge of the Coastal Plain region, from Fredericksburg south, loblolly pine occurs in the following types:

(1) In pure pine stands (chiefly on old fields) in mixture with shortleaf and scrub pines. Shortleaf usually predominates, though on lower slopes loblolly sometimes does. Westward from the eastern edge of the Piedmont, loblolly is gradually displaced by shortleaf and scrub pine, until the western limits of its botanical distribution are reached. (See map, fig. 1.)

(2) (a) In mixed pine and hardwood stands on lower slopes and on well-drained bottoms. In the original forests loblolly pine is rarely found, even as stray individual trees. The forests of this type are composed of white oak, yellow poplar, red oak, ash, birch, hickory, walnut, and red maple. (b) In mixed pine and hardwood stands on the uplands. The original forest is a mixture of oak, hickory, black gum and pine -- usually shortleaf, some scrub, and infrequently loblolly, the last as a rule occurring only where the soil is fairly moist. Where loblolly pine occurs in middle Virginia it is usually a tree of secondary importance, although occasionally on old fields it is found to limited extent in pure or nearly pure stands.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOBLOLLY PINE.

SOIL, MOISTURE, AND LIGHT REQUIREMENTS.

Loblolly pine is not fastidious in its soil requirements, and grows on a great variety of sites. It is in fact adapted to a wider range of soil conditions than any of the pines with which it is associated, though it grows best on deep, moist, well-drained, porous soils.

The tree depends much more upon soil moisture than upon atmospheric moisture, and in fact throughout its range in the United States it is most abundant in regions of lesser precipitation. It grows on soils with all the different degrees of moisture content from wet swamps to dry sandy uplands. It prefers, however, the intermediate flat, moist lands, edges of swamps, and well-drained bottoms, where it is best able to hold its own in competition with other species, and to which virgin stands are almost exclusively confined. Because of its superior reproductive power loblolly has extended itself as second-growth over large areas of comparatively dry upland soils, both heavy and light, where it was rarely found in the original forest.

Loblolly pine is intolerant of shade, being intermediate in its light requirements between the less tolerant longleaf and the more tolerant scrub pine. The effects, on different sites, of its light requirements upon reproduction and the development of individual trees and of stands are discussed later.

FORM AND DEVELOPMENT.

Under favorable forest conditions, with plenty of overhead light but shaded on the sides, loblolly pine develops, by the time it is 50 to 100 years old, a long, straight, cylindrical bole, clear of limbs for from 50 to 75 feet, with a diameter of from 15 to 24 inches breast-high and a height of from 80 to 120 feet. During the period of rapid height growth, which continues until the tree is about 40 years old, loblolly pine has a long, broad, conical or ovoid crown. With increasing age this gradually dies off at the bottom, and finally becomes somewhat flat and irregular.

In comparatively dense stands loblolly pine prunes itself rapidly, because of its intolerance of shade, and develops long, straight and clear boles which produce lumber of the best grades. In open stands, on the other hand, large, wide-spreading lateral branches are developed, and knotty, low-grade lumber is the result. Comparatively open stands characterize the dry soils, on which natural thinning is more rapid and the trees produced are shorter and less clean-boled than on moist situations.

GROWTH AND YIELD PER ACRE.

The rate of growth of loblolly pine varies considerably with the quality of the soil. The different soils or sites on which it commonly occurs may be conveniently grouped under three quality classes -- I, II, and III.

Quality class I comprises the richest soils, where the rate of growth is most rapid. It includes the very fertile soils, usually rich in organic matter, with a uniformly abundant supply of moisture, but free from standing water, such as bottom land along the edges of streams, ponds, and deep swamps, moist depressions and basins and the very best old-field soils.

Quality Class II includes the great bulk of soils on which the species occurs. These are fairly moist and are found in broad stretches of flat land between the bottoms and the uplands and in most of the old fields.

Quality Class III includes all poor and dry upland soils, both heavy and light, dry and sandy flat-land soils and sand hills, and the poorest of wornout old-field land.

Old growth loblolly trees occur almost exclusively as single individuals or in small groups in mixture with other species. In second growth following clean cutting and on abandoned fields, however the species has a remarkable tendency to reproduce itself in pure, even-aged, fully stocked stands. Table 2 indicates the rate of growth of such stands and the trees composing them on the three qualities of soil described, including the possible yield in either cubic feet or board feet at different ages. The cubic-foot yields are given for trees 3 inches in diameter and over, either peeled or with the bark on. The board-foot yields, which, of course, are not in addition to the cubic-feet yields, but merely express the yield for the same stand in another unit, apply when either all trees over 5 inches or all over 7 inches in diameter are counted. This table is based on measurements taken of pure, even-aged, unmanaged, fully stocked stands, found chiefly on old fields, and is a conservative indication of the possible yields from properly managed stands.

Table 2. - Rate of growth and yield of pure, even-aged, fully stocked, unmanaged stands of loblolly pine in Somerset and Worcetser Counties, Md.

1 Predominant trees are considered to be those composing a group of the largest dominant trees, the basal area of the group being equal to one-third of the basal area of all the dominant trees.

REPRODUCTION.

In ability to reproduce itself loblolly is one of the best, if not the best, of any of the pines in the eastern United States.

SEED PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION.

In comparison with other species of pine loblolly is very prolific in seed production. Some seed is produced every year, but the amount varies considerably. Heavy seed years occur at intervals of
from 3 to 5 years. In some years hardly sufficient seed is produced to give adequate reproduction. Loblolly takes two seasons to ripen its cones, and because of this the relative amount of seed which will be produced can be foretold a year in advance. The amount of seed produced by any one tree varies normally with its age, size, and amount of growing space. The best seeders are trees 40 or more years old, or which have about completed their principal height growth and which have comparatively isolated crowns and an ample growing space. Trees in crowded stands do not seed so prolifically as trees growing in the open.

The seed falls in late autumn and through the winter and early spring. It is disseminated chiefly by the wind. Trees with many cones will scatter seeds very plentifully to a distance of twice their own height in the direction of the prevailing winter winds. In general loblolly pine can be relied upon for thickly seeding in one season unobstructed areas adjacent to seed trees for a distance of 100 feet to 100 yards according to the height of the trees and provided it is a good seed year and there is a suitable seed bed.

SEED-BED REQUIREMENTS.

For germination loblolly pine seed it comparatively independent of seed bed and soil conditions. The seed requires only a slight degree of moisture to cause it to germinate. For seedling establishment and growth following germination the seed-bed requirements of loblolly vary with the moisture content of the soil. On fresh to dry soils the seedling demands an open seed bed -- that is, with plenty of light and little or no overhead crown cover and the soil exposed, or nearly so, with no layer of leaves and litter to prevent the developing roots from immediately coming in contact with the soil. On moist to wet sites, on the other hand, the seedling is able to exist and develop under considerable shade on comparatively thick layers of undecomposed pine needles and litter.

The most favorable conditions for loblolly reproduction are, in general, found in the open on an exposed loose soil, into which the roots of the seedling can at once enter and where the crown has plenty of light. Where loblolly pine seed trees occur in the vicinity of unused fields the land very quickly becomes seeded up to pine. Loblolly reproduction also takes place readily on a cover of grass, provided it does not form a compact sod. It seeds well on areas covered with tall grass, such as broom grass, which may come in after the forest is cleared.

On dry sites in the forest with a thick layer of undecomposed leaf litter there is little chance for reproduction of loblolly because of inadequate moisture, but in moist to wet situations reproduction usually takes place in spite of any impeding forest floor. On dry sites the seedling requires a good deal more light for its development or existence even than on moist to wet situations, which is one of the main reasons for the lack of loblolly reproduction under the shade of large trees, where the soil is not moist. For this reason lumbering as a rule improves the seed-bed conditions for loblolly pine and increases its reproduction, provided seed trees of the species are left. The abundance of direct sunlight let in by cutting of the forest also causes the impeding forest floor to decompose rapidly, so that the roots of the seedlings can more readily reach the soil. Another great hindrance to germination and growth of loblolly-pine seed which falls after lumbering, in addition to that of a thick undecomposed forest floor, is a luxuriant growth of ground cover and under-brush, including hardwood sprouts and seedlings, which in places may be so dense as to preclude pine reproduction entirely.

SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT.

The growth in height of loblolly seedlings for the first two years is slow, but during this period there is vigorous root development. Under average conditions seedlings in the open reach a height of from 2 to 6 inches the first and from 6 to 12 inches the second season. After this there sets in a rapid height growth of from 1 to 3 feet a year, which continues for from 30 to 50 years before beginning to fall off.

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY.

WIND.

Loblolly pine is usually windfirm, since it grows mainly on soils conducive to the development of a deep taproot with strong laterals. It is only where there is an impenetrable subsoil that it develops a shallow, flat root system and is easily wind-thrown. It seldom suffers much damage from windbreak, and where broken off will usually show that it has first been killed or weakened by fire, insects, or fungi.

FIRE.

The thick bark of loblolly pine gives it unusually good protection from damage by surface fires. Table 3 shows the average thickness of bark for trees of different diameters and heights 20 to 50 years old, which indicates their relative susceptibility to damage.

EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON DENSITY OF STAND

Table 3. Average thickness of bark at 4.5 feet from the ground for trees of different diameters and heights, from 20 to 50 years in age, Somerset and Worcester Counties, Md.

[Table based on taper curves.]

By far the most common form of fire in loblolly pine is the surface fire. The damage to any particular stand varies with the severity of the fire and the age and size of the trees. In general, the older the stand and the larger the trees the less will the damage be. Even a light surface fire in a sapling stand under 6 years of age usually kills a large part if not all of the trees outright, while in an older stand such a fire would kill few or none of the trees. Fires in sapling stands are especially destructive because they are likely to spread to the tops. Crown fires in loblolly pine, however, are limited almost entirely to the younger sapling stands, because of the rapidity with which older trees prune themselves of lateral branches for a considerable distance above the ground. The most destructive and costly form of fire in loblolly pine is a combination of surface and ground or subsurface fire, such as occurs at very dry times in bottoms and swamps where there is a deep accumulation of partially decomposed vegetable matter. Such fires kill the largest trees as well as the smallest.

The severity of forest fires and the consequent damage varies with a number of factors, among them the amount and relative dryness of inflammable material, such as leaf litter, debris, and underbrush, the velocity of the wind, and the moisture content of the atmosphere. Stands on low, wet sites are less subject to damage by fire than those on dry situations.

It is a common practice of some lumber companies in the South to burn over the forest every one to three years to prevent the accumulation of inflammable material. Large areas of forest land in the South are also burned over annually to improve the grazing, which also prevents severe fires. This is a cheap and effective method of insuring protection to valuable mature standing timber, but it is extremely harmful to young stands. Forest fires of any kind are always injurious. Even if they do not kill the trees outright they impair their vitality, lessen the rate of growth, and render them more susceptible to fatal attacks of destructive insects.

INSECTS.

The only insect enemy of loblolly pine to cause any serious damage in recent years is the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis). It is important that this insect be watched for in stands under management. Whenever detected, steps should at once be taken to keep it under control. Apparently at long intervals, frequently of 20 years, it becomes so abundant as to cause widespread destruction of pine timber, a loss which could be averted in stands under management by proper precautions. The depredations frequently last several years unless measures are taken to control the insects. Other species of insects often follow in the wake of the Dendroctonus and feed on trees weakened or killed by its attacks. Sometimes they even attack and kill healthy uninfested trees in the same locality. But with the disappearance of the Dendroctonus in any particular locality the other species of beetles disappear also. This does not seem to be due so much to the measures taken to control the Dendroctonus as to the fact that these other insects are unable effectively to attack live pine timber unaided. However, though the southern pine beetle is the only insect causing serious damage to southern pines at present, it is possible that other species might sometimes become sufficiently numerous to cause extensive destruction. (i)

Whenever owners of loblolly-pine forests discover their timber to be dying in small patches and are unable to determine the cause, they should at once communicate with the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

DISEASES.

The principal disease to which loblolly pine is subject is that which causes red heart. Mycelia (spawn) of large polyporous fungi infest the woody tissue of the living tree, the hyphae (filaments) of the spawn destroying the walls of the wood cells, causing the wood to assume a reddish color and rendering it very brittle. Red heart is very rare in young loblolly pine -- that is, under 75 years of age -- but is quite common in old-growth trees from 150 to 200 years old. From the standpoint of future forest management this disease does

(i) For a complete discussion of now to detect insect injury by the southern pine beetle and methods of controlling infestations the reader is referred to Farmers' Bulletin 476, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, in charge of Forest Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology. Everyone managing loblolly pine forests should secure this bulletin. During 1910 and 1911 the Dendroctonus destroyed a considerable amount of pine timber in the South, though the insect has now been largely brought under control wherever owners of pine tracts have carried out the measures recommended in the publication.

not need to be considered, since future stands will be grown almost exclusively on short rotations of less than 75 years. The red heart grades (culls) of North Carolina pine lumber, provided for by the grading rules of the North Carolina Pine Association, will be of no importance after the old-growth timber is cut.

UTILIZATION (i)

USES (ii)

Both the use and value of loblolly pine lumber have increased since the custom of seasoning it in dry kilns became common. Prior to that time loblolly lumber frequently went to the market green or imperfectly seasoned. It is largely sapwood, especially in small and medium-sized trees, and the water in it made it susceptible to attack by fungi, which gave a blue color to the wood, and not only marred its appearance but induced deterioration. Thorough drying in kilns removed the cause for that objection, and loblolly speedily won an important place in the market. Its range of uses is wide, and it is sold throughout the eastern and central United States and exported to Europe and Central America.

The principal uses to which loblolly pine is put are: For building lumber, such as interior finish, flooring, ceiling, frames and sashes, wainscoting, weather boarding, joists, lath, and shingles; for boxes and packages, in the form of boards and veneers, and in the manufacture of slack barrels; in the manufacture of cheap furniture, wooden-ware, toys, etc.; for construction purposes, in bridge and trestle work, in heavy building operations where the conditions are not such as to require longleaf, and in car construction, chiefly for freight cars. Much loblolly pine is cut for crossties, for which it is well suited after being given a preservative treatment. It is among the most easily treated timbers in the United States, and the recent developments in wood impregnation processes and plants is rapidly increasing its use for many purposes. It is extensively used for mine props in the South and in Pennsylvania, frequently after being given a preservative treatment. Few pines if any exceed loblolly in use for fuel. Immense quantities are shipped as cordwood for domestic purposes, and find markets in town in the loblolly region and in cities as far north as Philadelphia. Its use for fuel purposes in manufacturing is also extremely large, particularly in brick burning, pottery kilns, and by bakers who demand a quick, hot fire.

A report of the woods used in Maryland for manufacturing purposes in 1909 (iii) shows loblolly as exceeding all other woods combined (17

i. For characteristics of the wood see Appendix C. ii. Based on pp. 22-24, Bulletin 99 of the Forest Service, "Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States: Pines." iii. The latest available figures.

species were used) in the manufacture of boxes and crates, and as standing second in cooperage and basket making. Among the many commodities of which it forms all or a part of the material are basket bottoms, vegetable crates, nail kegs, and boxes for fruits, vegetables, and bottles. It has a regular place in vehicle manufacturing for beds and bodies for wagons and carts, and in boat building for masts, siding, decking, lining, ceiling, cabins, and all kinds of finish and joiner work in skiffs, yachts, motor boats, and sailing craft. It is widely used by slack coopers. It is standard material for interior finish, and is frequently employed on an equal footing with long-leaf pine, which it closely resembles if carefully selected with regard to grain. It takes finish well, and if painted, as it usually is when used as weatherboarding, it wears well and needs repainting only at long intervals. It makes excellent flooring, and serves for practically all kinds of interior finish-window and door frames, ceiling, wainscoting, molding, railing, balusters, brackets, and stair work. Cabinet-makers work it into many articles, and it is seen in wardrobes, clothes-presses, shelving, drawers, compartments, and boxes. It has no less a range of uses in furniture making, going for the most part into frames for couches, lounges, and large chairs.

A report of the wood-using industries of North Carolina (where conditions are like those in Virginia), in 1909, showed the position of loblolly pine to be similar to that in Maryland. In North Carolina more of it was used than of all other woods combined, the total being considerably more than 300 million feet. Practically every industry of the State that employed wood in manufacturing gave a prominent place to loblolly pine. Nearly 3,000,000 feet were used for telephone cross arms, it being practically the only wood employed for that purpose in the region. A comparatively large use in North Carolina is for tobacco hogsheads. Also, most of the matched flooring manufactured in that State was from loblolly.

There are a number of possible ways (i) of profitably utilizing loblolly pine material which at present it is not possible or will not pay to turn into lumber. Among these are the manufacture of wood pulp and paper, the manufacture of ethyl alcohol in certain forms of wood distillation, and for the production of power by means of gas producers, which gives five times as much heat per cord as does the ordinary method of wood burning. Experiments have shown that it is possible to manufacture an excellent grade of unbleached chemical pulp from yellow pine. This is the kind of pulp which at present is imported in large quantities from Europe, the amount in 1910 being 374,576,000 pounds, valued at $5,831,000.

i.1. See article by McGarvey Cline, written while Director Forest Products Laboratory, in the Southern Lumber Journal, Mar. 1, 1912, on "The Possible Utilization of Yellow Pine Stumpage."

Pine slabs as well as small logs and top logs can readily be converted into a high-grade chemical pulp, and if such material can be delivered to a suitably located paper mill, at the low price that seems possible in certain localities, it is practically certain that the Southern States could produce certain grades of paper in competition with the world.

PRESENT LUMBER PRICES.

The price received for loblolly pine lumber in the region covered by this report varies according as it is sold mill-run, either air-dried or green (principally to the local trade), or is kiln-dried, graded, and sold as North Carolina pine to the general lumber trade.

In the Delaware-Maryland-Virginia peninsula and on the western shore of Maryland practically the entire cut is sold locally mill-run and air-dried or green. Table 4 gives the average prices (i) received for loblolly pine lumber on the peninsula f.o.b. railroad or at factories and mills along the railroad.

Table 4 - Prices of loblolly pine lumber in the Delaware-Maryland- Virginia Peninsula.

Throughout the mainland of Virginia by far the larger part of the loblolly pine lumber output, after being kiln-dried and graded, is sold to the general lumber trade as North Carolina pine, or else is air-dried and graded as Virginia pine. Table 5 gives recent prices paid by wholesale merchants to manufacturers for the principal grades of North Carolina pine rough lumber, f.o.b. Norfolk, the main distributing center for this lumber.

Table 5. Prices of North Carolina pine f.o.b. Norfolk, Va. (basis actual sales).(v)

i. March 1912. ii. Logs (not suitable to cut into boards), especially small, crooked logs, are slabbed on three sides and cut into "flitch" 2", 2 1/2", or 3" in thickness, with variable widths on either face in each piece and scaled on the basis of the average width. iii. Mine props sell at $3 a ton, green, f. o. b. railroad. It takes from 4 to 5 tons, or 8,000 to 10,000 pounds, of green mine props to cut out 1,000 board feet of 4/4 edge lumber, so that the price of $3 per ton amounts to $12 or $15 per thousand board feet. iv. Cull mine props sell for $1.75 per ton, green, or $7 to $8.75 per thousand. The cost, figured in 1,000 board feet, of hauling green mine props amounts to about four times that of dry lumber, and for this reason props are cut only within a short haul of from 1 to 2 miles of the railroad. v. Selling price of wholesalers to retailers would be higher than the above prices.

COST OF LUMBER PRODUCTION.

In most of the region covered by this report the logs are cut by small portable or semiportable mills. The large mills are limited to the southeastern corner of Virginia, but even these are now securing the bulk of their logs by rail or water from North and South Carolina, as the supply in Virginia is largely cut out. In the future there will be only small mills which can be cheaply moved so as to saw up profitably isolated lots containing as little as 100,000 feet of standing timber. These, therefore, will deserve chief consideration in the management of loblolly-pine forests.

The cost of producing lumber, from the stump to the railroad or to a local market, exclusive of price paid for standing timber or stump-age, includes the following items where the milling is done by portable mills located in or near the timber: (1) Cutting and logging to the mill; (2) milling, including sawing and "sticking up;" (3) hauling lumber to the railroad or factory, including loading and unloading; (4) contractor's profit. For large mills located on the railroad there is in place of the hauling item a small charge for loading on the cars, and the cost item of logging to the mill is always considerably higher.

COST EXCLUSIVE OF HAULING.

The cost of producing loblolly pine lumber by small mills in the region, exclusive of hauling, is about as follows:

Table 6. Cost of lumbering (except hauling) per thousand board feet.

HAULING.

The cost of hauling is the most variable factor in the cost of lumber production by small mills, the variation being due to distance of mill from the railroad or local market, as well as to cost of team. A team of three horses (or mules) with driver can haul readily under present average road conditions in the region 2,000 feet of loblolly pine lumber a distance of 8 miles and return the same day, at an average speed of 2 miles an hour for the round trip. The cost of such a team in the region varies from $5 to $7 per day, depending largely on the season of the year. It is the custom for two such teams to work together so that the two drivers can help each other in loading and unloading And in case either of the teams becomes stalled, it takes about an hour to load and unload a wagon. When more than one trip a day is made, 20 cents per trip (10 cents per thousand) extra should be added for additional labor to assist in loading. Taking the above figures as a basis, the cost of hauling different distances is as follows:

Table 7. Cost of hauling lumber, including loading and unloading.

TOTAL COST OF LUMBER.

Combining the average costs given in Tables 6 and 7 gives Table 8 which shows the average total cost of producing lumber at different distances from the railroad or local markets.

Table 8. Cost of producing loblolly pine lumber, per thousand board feet.

The cost of producing North Carolina pine in southeastern Virginia for the general lumber market by moderate-sized mills varies much less with the distance of the timber from the railroad than in the case of small portable mills. The larger mills are located on a railroad or on water affording facilities for direct transportation to the general market, and use narrow-gauge railroads, locally called trams, for transporting logs from the woods to the mill. These mills have a usual capacity of about 15,000 feet per day, and an actual output of from 2 to 3 million feet a year. Where small portable mills can profitably be set up for a cutting of only 50,000 feet, a moderate-sized mill with tram and dry kiln requires a stand of 2 million or more feet to be logged to the mill at a single point. The cost of producing North Carolina pine in southeastern Virginia by moderate-sized mills where there is a cut of 5 million feet accessible to one set-up is given in Table 9. For larger cuts from one setting of mill and tram the cost of tramming and milling would be less.

Table 9. Cost of producing North Carolina pine lumber in southeastern Virginia.

i. Cost of logging within half mile of tram, including cutting, hauling, and loading on cars, is figured at $4 per 1,000, Doyle scale, which amounts to $3 or less mill cut. ii. $750 per mile (15 cents per 1,000 board feet hauled) is allowed for cost of laying tram and depreciation in value of rails, the latter item being insignificant; and 5 cents per 1,000 board feet allowed for each additional mile of tram for increased cost of maintenance and operation. iii. Cost of lumbering is figured f.o.b. Norfolk or to the nearest point on the railroad that will have an equally low freight rate to the general market. On an average, for mills in southeastern Virginia, this will add about $1 per 1,000 board feet to the coast of North Carolina lumber.

VALUE OP STANDING TIMBER.

The stumpage value or price which a lumber contractor can afford to pay for standing timber represents the difference between the f.o.b. railroad values for lumber and the cost of production. By subtracting from the values given in Table 4 the costs given in Table 8 we obtain the figures given in Table 10, which shows the present stumpage value of standing timber in the Delaware-Maryland-Virginia peninsula at different distances from the railroad.

Table 10. Value of standing loblolly pine per 1,000 board feet to be cut into boards and in flitch.

This table represents pretty well the value of standing loblolly pine in most of the area under consideration. Timber of sufficient size to make first-class mine props and within 1 to 2 miles of the railroad in the Delaware-Maryland-Virginia peninsula commands slightly higher stumpage prices for props than is given above for lumber. Many cases can be found, furthermore, of $5 being paid for stumpage as far as 8 miles from the railroad, so that above values may be considered fairly conservative.

The average value, by grades, of standing loblolly pine at different distances from the railroad in the region where the timber is to be sold to the general market as North Carolina pine is shown in Table 11.

This table is based on the values given in Table 5 (i) less the cost of production as given in Table 9.

Table 11. Stumpage value of grades of standing loblolly pine to be cut into North Carolina pine lumber.

The value of standing loblolly pine timber of different diameters at different distances from the railroad is shown in Tables 12 and 13, the former being for trees cut into inch-thick boards (ungraded) and crate flitch for local consumption, and the latter for trees manufactured into lumber for the general market in accordance with the grading specifications for North Carolina pine lumber. The former includes all trees 5 inches and over in diameter breast-high, while the latter includes only trees 7 inches and over.

Table 12. Stumpage value of loblolly pine trees of different diameters and of average height to be cut into ungraded square-edged, inch lumber and crate flitch. (ii)

i. Average prices f.o.b. Norfolk, for the quarter ending June 20, 1912, were used. Prices have risen considerably since June, as shown by Table 5, so values given in Table 11 are conservative. ii. Based on Table 39, Appendix D, showing amount of flitch and inch lumber cut from trees of different diameters, and Table 20, showing values of these grades on the stump at different distances from the market.

Table 13. Stumpage value of loblolly pine trees of different diameters, of average height, to be manufactured into North Carolina pine lumber.(i)

Table 14. - Stumpage value per acre of even-aged, fully stocked stands of loblolly pine cut into ungraded inch boards and crate flitch. 1

[All trees 5 inches and over in diameter, breasthigh, included.]

i. Based on Table 43, Appendix D, showing the amount of grades cut from trees of different diameters, and Table 11, showing value by grades of standing timber at different distances from the market.

The stumpage values per acre of even-aged fully stocked stands of loblolly pine of different ages, on different qualities of soil and at different distances from the railroad, are shown in Tables 14 and 15.

Table 14. Stumpage value per acre of even-aged, fully stocked stands of loblolly pine cut into ungraded inch boards and crate flitch.(i)

[All trees 5 inches and over in diameter, breasthigh, included.]